The Noh Theater of Japan  Gregory Kunkel & Susan Yee 11/2002

The traditional form of Japanese theater, and one of the oldest extant theatrical forms in the world, is Noh.  Noh developed from ancient forms of dance, music, drama and poetry, and from various types of festival drama which were performed at shrines and temples in the 12^th and 13^th centuries.  While other forms of Japanese theater such as Bunraku (puppet theater) and Kabuki were for the common people, Noh was viewed and practiced by the samurai or warrior classes.

Today, Noh is performed throughout Japan by professional artists, mainly men, who have passed down the art among family members for many generations.  In addition to the professionals, there is also a wide following of both male and female amateurs who study and perform the works of the Noh canon.  One will find Noh performances especially flourishing in the cities of Tokyo, Osaka and Kyoto.

Noh is nothing like a modern theater play such as we might be used to. It is more like a very slow dance, with every movement, word and chant pre-prescribed and highly stylized. It takes place on a sparsely decorated stage—the scenery is left up to the viewer to imagine. There is often a pine tree painted on the backdrop, a reference to the time when these plays took place at outdoor shrines. Noh is also performed in conjuction with a series of comic interludes called Kyogen, which puts more emphasis on dialog.

Folding Screen, "Watching Noh" Edo period, c. 1607 Kobe City museum

There are few actors, and each has a specific role to play. These are, firstly, the shite (“sh-tay”), being the principal actor, who is sometimes accompanied by supporting actors called tsure (“tsoo-ray”). The shite makes a transformation from the first act to the second act, going from an ordinary person into the ghost of a famous person, for example, or from a commoner to a nobleman. They are both traditionally performed by the same actor.

The waki, another main actor, is a traveling priest, whose questioning of the shite does much to advance the plot of the story. If he appears with another character, that character is called the waki-tsure.

Then there is the ai-kyogen, one of the interlude actors, who poses as a local and gives background on the waki so they we may understand the shite better.

The dramatic story is narrated and chanted by an eight-person jiutai or chorus that sits to the right side of the stage.  The hayashi, a group of three or four musicians, sit behind the actors, and they play the traditional instruments called nohkan (flute), ko-tsuzumi (small drum), oh-tsuzumi (medium drum), and taiko (large drum). The narration and music is also strictly pre-prescribed and is integral to the overall feel of the performance.

Altogether, there are five types of Noh plays.  The first type is known as the kami (“god”) play; the second, shura mono (“fighting play”); the third, katsura mono (“wig play”); the fourth, gendai mono (“present day play”); and the fifth type, the kichiku (“demon”) play.  The last type of play, the kichiku play, is especially interesting, as it features devils, strange beasts, and supernatural beings.

The dramatist Zeami Motokiyo (1363 - 1443) wrote extensively upon Noh.  According to Zeami, Noh reposes upon two foundations, monomane and yugen.  The first term, monomane, refers to the “imitation of things," which can be thought of as giving a certain realism to the performance of Noh.  Yugen, which means literally “dark” or “obscure,” suggests that beauty is only partially perceived.  This means that while the viewer may have fully felt the beauty of the dramatic work, he or she will have barely glimpsed the beauty of that work.  Zeami believed a perfect balance between monomane and yugen should be the ideal for Noh.

Suo with Pine, Bamboo Curtains, Plum Blossoms, Poem Cards, and Picture Cards Edo Period, 19th Century. Hayashibara Museum of Art	Noshime Edo period, 18th century. Itsukushima Shrine

One thing that Noh is known for around the world is its masks. There are a great number of masks used in Noh.  Experts state that there are more than one hundred different types of Noh masks. The mask is extremely important because they enable one actor to express a variety of characters, and to undergo transformations. Although many masks are characterized by very strong emotions, such as anger or madness, the more neutral-looking masks have a fascinating feature that has amazed people for centuries. The masks are carved in such a way that they can be manipulated by a skilled actor to go from one emotion to another in a heartbeat. You have to see it to believe it.

Because all roles were traditionally played by men, there are masks that represent everyone except middle aged men. When this role is played, however, the face is kept in a “direct mask,” the stylized representation of the emotions of the character.

An interesting point to keep in mind is this: in principle, it is only the shite (chief actor) that wears a mask, all the other actors appear on the stage without masks.  I have employed a broad classification system to make things a bit simpler, and the following is really just a sampling of the richness of Noh’s catalogue of masks.

Masks for old men: Realism and serenity are the dominant characteristics of this group.

Masks for akujo ("fierce old man"): These masks are used for superhuman roles, where old men perform outlandish dances.

Beshimi ("tight lip") masks: The distinguishing feature of this group is the firmly compressed lips.  They represent goblins, evil deities, and devils.

Lion masks: These are conventionally called shishi-guehi ("lion mouth").  There are two varieties: one is painted gold and the other a flesh color.

Masks for women ghosts: This class of mask is for the representation of the apparition of dead women, who, tormented in hell for their sins, still retain something of their personal beauty.

In addition to masks, there are many different kinds of headdresses used in Noh, and these may be classified into six groups: eboshi, kammuri, tenkan, tokin, boshi and zukin. The eboshi ("cap") is a generic term which includes the kazaori-eboshi ("folded-over cap"), the samurai-eboshi ("warrior’s cap"), the hora-eboshi ("court minister’s cap"), the nashiuchi-eboshi ("tall black cap"), the daijin-eboshi ("court minister’s cap"), the shizuka-eboshi ("tall gold cap"), etc.  With the exception of the last, these headdresses are only worn by men.

The kammuri ("crown") is worn by men on ceremonial occasions.  There are several varieties of kammuri.  Among these are the ui-kammuri ("manhood ceremony crown"), the to-kammuri ("Chinese crown"), and the sui-kammuri ("gauze crown").

The tenkan ("heavenly crown") is worn by a heavenly maiden or goddess.  It consists of a rinkan ("coronet") surmounted with a crest of some kind and hung with pendants.  The rinkan without the ornaments is worn by a demon.

The tokin ("helmet-cloth," a small round cap) is a kind of head-dress, small and cylindrical in shape, which rests just above the forehead and is secured by means of a pair of cords tied under the chin.

The boshi ("hood") has a variety of different manifestations.  Among these are the sumi-boshi ("pointed hood"), the shamon-boshi ("priest’s hood"), and the to-boshi ("Chinese hood").

The zukin (“head cloth”) is of two types: one a kind of cap and the other a kind of turban.  Among the former are the Chohan zukin and the Yorimasa zukin, among the latter are the kesa zukin and the Nagayama-zukin.

There are about 2,000 Noh texts all together, with about 230 composing the modern repertoire.  Some Noh playwrights of note are Zeami Motokiyo, Kan’ami Kiyotsugu, Toki Zenmaro, and Kita Minoru.

If you would like to see Noh for yourself, there will be performances of the ancient art at this year’s Japan Expo. See details in this issue of Sushi & Tofu, or click on this link to Japan Expo.